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Taxonomy and description
 Terminology
Parking standards are the controls applied to private non-residential
(PNR) parking through the planning system. Parking standards are set by
local authorities to specify the minimum and maximum number of spaces
permitted for particular types of new development. The number of spaces
permitted in new developments varies between land uses and local authorities.
Office developments and retail developments are the two most common building
projects requiring PNR parking. Standards for the former typically range
from one space per 25 square metres of floor space to one space per 1115
square metres. Retail standards range from one space per nine square metres
to one space per 50 square metres (Potter, 2001).
Approaches to setting Parking Standards
As with parking controls and pricing, parking standards are applied to
meet demand and regulate supply to influence demand. There are a number
of approaches to the setting of parking standards. These are outlined
in Potter (2001) and set out below.
| The Demand Standards Approach |
| As with provision of road space, PNR parking standards have in the
past been set to meet all demand. However, changes in PNR parking
standards (from generous minimum requirements to restrictive maximum
provision) reflect those applied to road space. PNR standards now
limit supply to regulate traffic levels and control congestion, pollution
and other negative impacts of traffic and road infrastructure provision.
Nevertheless, in areas where such negative impacts are minimal, public
transport is inadequate, or there is a desire to attract car borne
visitors (either from competing areas or to aid regeneration) parking
standards may remain at levels that will meet actual and expected
growth in demand. |
| The Two-part and Operational Standards Approach |
| Where congestion is a problem local authorities have sought to reduce
the volume of PNR parking to an operational (minimal) level. A balance
is provided as public off-site space through a commuted payment from
the developer. Developers make commuted payments to local authorities
when the parking provided at a new development is below the number
of spaces specified for the size of development. However, this approach
has not been universally successful, as it is unpopular with developers.
A more recent practice is to seek commuted payments for public transport
provision or park and ride, rather than public parking. |
| The Capacity Rationing Approach |
| Under this approach, parking standards in an area, or along a corridor
(serving a new development) are determined according to the road capacity
available for newly generated traffic. This approach overcomes the
first come, first served nature of some other parking standards, which
may become more restrictive once a certain volume have been reached. |
The Area Needs Approach
This is a common approach, although the exact criteria are rarely
set down. Standards, as the name suggests, are set to meet the (competing)
needs of the area. Criteria can include: |
- Parking controls and management of public spaces, both on and
off-street, plus anticipated changes in these,
- Environmental and traffic planning policies,
- Site constraints and design considerations,
- Public transport availability,
- Economic and competition considerations.
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| The Modal Split Target Approach |
| This approach seeks to make modes other than the car relatively
more attractive by making parking more difficult. Thus, parking standards
may be set below the operational (minimum) level. As the need to reduce
the negative impacts of car use grows, this approach becomes more
important. |
| The Public Transport Accessibility Level approach |
| In this approach, parking standards are linked to public transport
accessibility levels (PTALs). Parking standards are set to meet demand
from car journeys that could not be undertaken by public transport.
This approach is limited by ability to determine PTALs. In the UK,
the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham have devised a methodology
for calculating PTALs, which can be found at http://www.lbhf.gov.uk/index3.htm |
As the need to manage demand to mitigate the negative impacts of car
travel grows, the importance of parking standards also grows. Controversy
around such standards also grows in tandem, as restrictive standards can
be unpopular with developers. This can encourage developers to move elsewhere,
leading to competition between local authorities to set more generous
parking standards than their neighbours. Whilst there is often disagreement
between developers and local authorities, all those involved, including
national retailers, see a need to reform the setting of parking standards
(in the UK at least) (Potter, 2001) to reduce the variability between
different authority areas. Potter (2001) cites the fundamental requirements
for setting parking standards as:
- Standards should be part of a wider parking strategy,
- Firm regional guidance (in the face of competition),
- Fairness and consistency of application,
- Transparency, simplicity and user friendly derivation,
- Realism and achievability,
- Local flexibility to cater for regeneration for example,
- Defensibility at public inquiry.
These standards have been incorporated within the UK Governments’
Planning Policy Guidance Note on transport (PPG13), revised in 2001. This
can be found at http://www.planning.odpm.gov.uk/ppg/ppg13/
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