Definition

Encouraging less motorised personal travel through land use involves the planning of new land use development and the management of existing land use in such a way as to bring origins and destinations closer together in order to help reduce private transport trips. This is normally done by increasing development densities or by organising the mix of lad use types, or both. Land use policy can also encourage a modal shift to public transport (see 'Encouraging public transport use through land use planning').

How can land use planning encourage less personal motorised travel?

Land use patterns affect travel behaviour. A variety of land use factors affect travel patterns including density, land use mix, roadway connectivity and design, parking facility design, and building design. Certain types of land use patterns are accessible by multiple modes, which reduces per capita car use, while others are car- orientated, which increases private car use. There are several strategies which involve changing land use patterns to increase multi-modal accessibility and reduce car use. (Online TDM encyclopaedia).

The full range of ways in which land use planning can encourage less personal motorised travel is as follows (TUE, p58). The list includes all types of land use instruments: the first two are covered in this section, the remaining six in other sections as shown.

1. increasing development densities - higher densities may encourage shorter journeys and, thus, the use of walking and cycling (and may help to make public transport more viable, see 3 below);

2. altering the development mix - a better mix of uses can improve accessibility and, hence, reduce the need to travel;

3. concentrating dense developments within transport corridors - where public transport can provide a viable alternative to the use of cars (see Encouraging Public Transport Use Through Land Use Planning);

4. reducing parking standards - this probably offers the single most direct impact on levels of car-use and can be used in trip-end restraint (see Parking Standards);

5. increasing developers' contributions for transport infrastructure, including public transport. Alternatively, the provision of public transport services can be required as part of the process of obtaining planning approval for new developments; (see Developer Contributions);

6. requiring commuted payments - these are a special type of developer contribution in which the normal requirements for private parking provision are waived in return for payment to a local authority of a charge per space, so that the Local Authority can make provision in public car parks or promote park-and-ride schemes (see Commuted Payments);

7. promoting travel-reduction ordinances/company transport plans - travel-reduction ordinances are used in the US and the Netherlands to require developers to produce a plan specifying ways in which they will reduce car-use to their development; this would require legislation in the UK. As an alternative, voluntary company travel plans could be developed.

How can land use density and land use mix encourage less personal motorised travel? (based on Online TDM Encyclopaedia).

Density refers to the number of people or jobs in a given area. Mix refers to how land uses are arranged in relation to each other. If common destinations are located close together, this type of mix is sometimes known as 'clustering'.

An example of clustering is illustrated in the figure below:

A. This shows a conventional suburban development with buildings surrounded by parking and isolated from each other. There are often no paths connecting the buildings or sidewalks along the streets. Only car transport can effectively serve such destinations.

B. This shows the same buildings sited so they are clustered together and orientated toward the street, with main entrances that connect directly to the sidewalk rather than being located behind parking. This creates convenient pedestrian access between them, for example, making it easier for an employee in an office to visit an adjacent building, with a bank or shop for example (and for employees from two different buildings potentially to car share).

C. This shows eight buildings clustered around a park. As the cluster increases in size the efficiency of pedestrian improvements, car sharing and public transport services also increase, due to economies of scale.

D. This shows the eight-office building integrated into a park or campus, creating more convenient and attractive pedestrian connections between the buildings, further improving access and supporting transportation alternatives. It also creates a more enjoyable environment for employees and visitors compared with isolated buildings surrounded by parking.

Clustering At the Local Scale

Source: Online TDM Encyclopaedia

Density and mix can have significant impacts on travel demand and travel patterns through the following mechanisms:

• Accessibility: The number of potential destinations located within a geographical area tends to increase with population and employment density, reducing travel distances and the need for private travel. For example, in low-density areas a school may serve hundreds of square miles, requiring most students to travel by motor vehicle. In higher density areas, schools may serve just a few square miles, reducing average travel distances and allowing more students to walk or cycle. Similarly, average travel distances for errands, commuting and business-to-business transactions can decline with density.
  
  
• Transport choice: Increased density tends to increase the number of transport options available in an area due to economies of scale. Higher density areas tend to have better pedestrian and bicycle facilities and better public transport service because increased demand makes them more cost-effective.
  
  As a result of these factors, higher density and clustered land use mix together tend to reduce per capita car ownership and use, and increased use of alternative modes (Jack Faucett Associates and Sierra Research, 1999).
  
  International studies indicate that increased urban density significantly reduces per capita vehicle travel, as illustrated in the figure below (Newman, et al, 1997; Kenworthy and Laube, 1999). This occurs in both higher-income and lower-income regions.

Urban Density and Motor Vehicle Travel (Kenworthy and Laube, 1999)

Each point marked on the graph represents a major international city. Per capita vehicle use tends to decrease with density.

Holtzclaw (1994) found that average vehicle ownership, vehicle travel, and vehicle expenditure per household decline with increasing residential densities and proximity to public transport, holding constant other demographic factors such as household size and income.

Technology

This policy instrument is not dependent upon technology.